Humes and Anscombes View on Causation - 1227 Words

In this paper I discuss both Hume’s and Anscombe’s view on causation. I begin with Hume and his regularity theory; then I move onto Anscombe where I provide a rebuttal of Hume’s regularity theory, and later I explain how Hume would respond to Anscombe’s objection to Hume’s regularity theory. Hume’s notion of causation is his regularity theory. Hume explains his regularity theory in two ways: (1) â€Å"we may define a cause to be an object, followed by another, and where all the objects similar to the first are followed by objects similar to the second† (2) â€Å"if the first object had not been, the second never had existed.† Hume defines causation in terms of natural necessity and explains natural necessity as follows: of two events, if event A†¦show more content†¦In this case Hume would argue that it is because it was event A’ and not event A, because if it were event A then event B would have happened, but b ecause event B’ happened then it must be that it was event A’. On the other hand, Anscombe disagrees with Hume, and believes that we can, and do observe causation. Anscombe uses examples of crushing, chewing, pushing, and such to illustrate that we do perceive causation. For example, if person A holds a sheet of paper in their hand, and then begins to crush the sheet of paper, and then later we see the sheet of paper crumbled; Anscombe argues that this is enough evidence to show that we do perceive causation, because we can see the causing of the sheet of paper to crumble. Another example is of person A cutting a sheet of paper; Anscombe would argue that it is evident that we observe the causing of the sheet of paper be divided. In addition, Ansombe add that we can perceive causation by tracing an effect to its cause. For example, of the cutting of a sheet of paper by person A, one can traced the effect (sheet of paper cut in half) to its cause (person A cutting the sh eet of paper). Therefore, Anscombe claims that we do perceive causation. Anscombe believes that this evidence is sufficient to prove that we not only perceive â€Å"contiguity† and â€Å"succession† of events, but the cause of events. From Hume’s regularity theory,

The Importance of Research in a Social Work Framework

The importance of research in a social work framework Social work, often considered a relatively modern profession, has developed through advances in knowledge, social reforms, democratic ideas and increasing body of research and literature (Doel, 2012). The Social work profession is lead by theories from social sciences, indigenous and humanities knowledge, which comes with a respect for human rights and diversity and is often thought of as a moral endeavour (Chenweth McAuliffe, 2012). It will be shown that research plays an important role in social work and should be used to guide programs and practices, ethical situations and political change. Rubin and Babbie (2011) discussed the importance of research-generated facts to guide practice and social reform efforts, claiming its importance in establishing the contribution research can make to further knowledge and practice. However it is seen that social workers may often underestimate the importance research contributions can make in social work practice (Rubin Babbie, 2011). Rosen, Proctor and Staudt (1999) established that for research to be critically effective, a joint collaboration between researchers and practitioners in establishing the effectiveness of interventions, such a collaboration will support social workers to establish unique research goals that focus on social work priorities. This report will demonstrate that exploration, evaluation and validation of intervention effectiveness is a key contributorShow MoreRelatedWhat is the social ecological model? How can this perspective be used in practice to deepen understanding of the lives of children, young people and families in poverty and promote wellbeing?1381 Words   |  6 Pagesis the social ecological model? 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The Development of the Western Frontier between 1866 and 1890 Free Essays

The Trans-Mississipi west comprises the region that spans from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains (Client file, n. pag. ). We will write a custom essay sample on The Development of the Western Frontier between 1866 and 1890 or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is estimated to be 1,000 miles long from east to west and is about 1,500 miles from north to south (Client file, n. pag. ). The Trans-Mississippi west (also known as the Great Plains, the Western Frontier or the prairie) was inhabited by more than 300,000 Native Americans, collectively referred to as the Plains Indians (Client file, n. pag. ). Prior to the Civil War, the Western Frontier was largely unpopulated by pioneers (although it was under the control of the United States government through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803) (Client file, n. pag. ). Some wagon trains did pass through the area en route to Oregon or California, but these were able to do so unmolested (in sharp contrast to Hollywood films) (Client file, n. pag. ). In return, the payment of tributes in the form of clothing, jewelry, metal utensils or other items desired by the tribes was required (Client file, n. ag. ). However, the Homestead Act of 1862 (passed during the Civil War) encouraged emigration to the Western Frontier (Client file, n. pag. ). Under the act, settlers can avail of a 160-acre parcel of land for a small filing fee worth $10 (Client file, n. pag. ). In addition, they can obtain the full title to the land within five years if they were able to make significant improvements on it (planting crops, building houses, raising livestock, etc. ) (Client file, n. pag. ). As a result, homesteaders, miners and ranchers trespassed on Indian lands and threatened the Plains Indians’ hunting and way of life (Client file, n. pag. ). This left the Plains Indians with no other choice but to use armed resistance (Client file, n. pag. ). The hostilities between the Plains Indians and the US Cavalry (called on by the settlers to crush Indian opposition and to confine tribes in government-controlled reservations) that ensued were eventually called the Western Indian Wars (1866-1890) (Client file, n. ag. ). Despite the attractive terms of the Homestead Act of 1862, around 60% of emigrants gave up on their homesteads before the end of the five-year period (Client file, n. pag. ). Reasons for doing so included lack of water supply, Indian attacks, harsh winters, soil that was unfit for planting and sometimes-deadly conflicts with ranchers, who saw homesteads as a hindrance to cattle grazing (Client file, n. pag. ). On the other hand, those who remained endure d extreme hardships just to survive. They worked very hard under sub-zero winters and summers that often reached more than a hundred degrees Fahrenheit (Client file, n. pag. ). Unable to afford houses made of wood, they lived in houses built of sod and dirt (Client file, n. pag. ). They also experienced infestations of locusts, which would eat their crops, as well as the drapes of their houses and their clothing (Client file, n. pag. ). Adding to their list of burdends were natural disasters such as storms and tornadoes (Client file, n. pag. ). The homesteaders’ privations were so great that History professor Frederick Jackson Turner hypothesized in his thesis in 1890 that â€Å"much of America’s free and democratic spirit was forged by the existence of an open frontier to the west† (Client file, n. pag. ). Another important advancement in the Western Frontier was the Transcontinental Railroad. The absence of a railway system in the region isolated Oregon and California (already states) from the rest of the US – they stood alone at the edge of the country and were accessible only by wagon train, ship or boat (Client file, n. ag. ). President Abraham Lincoln and the US Congress backed a railroad act which authorized the presence of a railroad across the continent, but it was not implemented until the end of the Civil War (Client file, n. pag. ). The construction of the railroad started in 1864 – the Union Pacific was built westward from Omaha, Nebraska, while the Central Pacific was erected eastward from Sacramento, California (Client file, n. pag. ). Even if only 40 miles of track were laid by 1865, the pace of the assembly increased at the end of war (Client file, n. ag. ). Majority of the workers that were recruited for the building of the railroad were from minority groups such as blacks, Mexicans, Asians and Irish (Client file, n. pag. ). Despite delays in construction (storms, harsh winters, occasional Indian attacks, migration of large buffalo herds, etc. ), the Transcontinental Railroad was finally completed at Promontory Point, Utah on May 10, 1869 (Client file, n. pag. ). The Transcontinental Railroad boosted commerce in the Western Frontier, particularly the cattle industry (Client file, n. pag. ). Even though the cattle industry was already a major part of the western economy, the lack of transportation hindered its expansion into the eastern part of the US (Client file, n. pag. ). Hence, the development of railroads in the Western Frontier (along with entrepreneurs such as Joseph McCoy, who promoted beef as tasty and healthy) increased the demand for beef in the east (Client file, n. pag. ). Cowboys would drive large herds of cows from Texas and New Mexico to â€Å"railheads† – towns on or near the rail line, such as Dodge City, Abilene, Wichita and Colorado Springs (Client file, n. ag. ). Once in the â€Å"railheads,† the cattle would be kept in large pens or yards, where they would be fattened for market in the east (Client file, n. pag. ). During this time, a cowboy was paid usually around $25-$30 per month (Client file, n. pag. ). â€Å"Railheads† (also known as â€Å"railhead towns† or â€Å"cow towns†) became prosperous not only because of the cattle industry, but also because of saloons or â€Å"dance halls,† where cowboys spent their money on liqour, gambling and women (Client file, n. pag. ). It is likewise the saloon that gave â€Å"railheads† their reputation for lawlessness (Client file, n. pag. ). But it must be noted that this image was largely seen only in Hollywood films (Client file, n. pag. ). For one, most â€Å"railheads† were strict when it comes to gun control (Client file, n. pag. ). Gun control laws in â€Å"railheads† were enforced by tough sheriffs or marshalls with shotgun-toting deputies – one gun control law that they strictly implemented was that cowboys should surrender their guns to them while they were in town (Client file, n. pag. ). In addition, the saloon area in a â€Å"railhead† was usually located in the opposite direction of the â€Å"respectable† side of the town to minimize the possibility of untoward incidents (Client file, n. pag. ). Lastly, contrary to Hollywood films, cowboys were not hardened criminals but â€Å"just regular and adventurous young men letting off steam after several months of hard work† (Client file, n. pag. ). Most gunfights â€Å"were spontaenous events in a saloon or in the street between angry or drunken men who had not been relieved of their guns† (Client file, n. pag. ). They usually fought over â€Å"poker-related disputes, a woman, a perceived insult or some ongoing enmity between long-time adversaries† (Client file, n. pag. ). In most â€Å"railheads,† the murder rate was â€Å"acutally lower than the murder rate of many large American cities in the latter half of the twentieth century† (Client file, n. pag. ). Furthermore, extensive research has proven that in the period between 1870-1900, only five gun duels occurred in the entire Western Frontier (Client file, n. pag. ). It is true that emigration led to the development of the Trans-Mississipi west. However, it must be kept in mind that this progress did not come without a price – the Western Indian Wars killed around 1,000 US Cavalry soldiers and led to the death and enslavement of millions of Plains Indians (McConnell, n. pag. ). It would be fair to say that the circumstances surrounding the expansion of the Trans-Mississipi west became one of the precursors for future instances of US political, economic and military aggression abroad. The strategy remains the same – plunder the country (or in this case, region) as much as you can, fill the people’s minds with deceiving propaganda and chop off a few thousand heads when necessary. How to cite The Development of the Western Frontier between 1866 and 1890, Papers